The word "homosexuality" was coined by English writer Charles Gilbert Chaddock in 1892. Chaddock was expanding on what previously had been called "sexual inversion" to denote innate physical attraction between two men. This radical concept had been first articulated publicly in Germany in 1867 by Karl Heinrich Ulrichs. Before this, "homosexuality" as understood today didn't exist. People didn't think in terms of sexual orientation. While every form of sexual activity has been practiced since recorded history, the classifications "heterosexual," "homosexual" and "bisexual" are modern.
Consequently, it's anachronistic to call the great Roman Emperor Hadrian (76-137) a homosexual, although he had many young male lovers, including, in all probability, the most famous of them, the beautiful Greek youth Antinous (ca. 111-130).
Historical consensus rates Hadrian as one of the most accomplished Roman emperors. Born Publius Aelius Hadrianus, most likely in what is now Spain, he was probably descended from a well-established Hispanic-Roman family. The Emperor Trajan was a distant paternal relative. As a young man, Hadrian became a member of his intimate circle.
Hadrian was three times chosen tribune, a rare distinction, before becoming a quaestor, serving with distinction in the senate, where he read and perhaps composed some of Trajan's speeches. He had already proven himself an able commander in Germany and other provinces. In 117, shortly before dying, Trajan named Hadrian his successor, although it's unclear if he officially adopted him. It didn't matter. Having earned the loyalty of the army, Hadrian quickly assumed power. He shrewdly made the empire more defensible by withdrawing troops from Mesopotamia and Armenia, countries conquered by Trajan.
The peripatetic emperor visited almost all the Roman provinces and territories. Still standing, Hadrian's Wall separates England from Scotland and marks the empire's northernmost frontier. In Rome, he restored the Pantheon, which remains intact, and constructed many new temples.
A passionate philhellene, Hadrian lavished attention on Athens, which he saw as the cultural center of the world. He ordered temples and other buildings built there. Hadrian's Gate, located near the Temple of Zeus, is a reminder of his love for the city. The Adriatic Sea is named for him.
While traveling in Bithnyia (modern Turkey) in ca. 123, Hadrian probably first saw Antinous, then around 12 years old. The beautiful boy was sent to Rome to be educated at the imperial court. Within a few years, he had blossomed into an exceptionally handsome youth who, according to ancient sources, became Hadrian's lover and traveling companion. (Hadrian's marriage produced no natural offspring. Both his sons, including his successor, Antoninus Pius, were adopted.) There was no public opprobrium in Hadrian's relationship with Antinous or with any of his young male lovers. It was an accepted form of sexual behavior, although the Romans didn't idealize love between two males as the ancient Greeks did.
In 130, Antinous drowned in the Nile. The emperor called it an accident. Others claimed he had been killed or induced to sacrifice himself to protect Hadrian from a deadly prophesy. He may have committed suicide.
The emperor's health was declining. An avid astrologer and believer in magic, he sought to determine when and where he would die and how he could cheat his fate. Hadrian appears to have grown tired of Antinous. They may have quarreled �" Hadrian was quick to anger and could be violent. Sacrificing Antinous, or inducing him to sacrifice himself, to circumvent or defy a prophecy, is a distinct possibility.
Additionally, as the Emperor's favorite, Antinous was envied by many and may have unwittingly made enemies who wanted him eliminated. Even if he hadn't yet lost the Emperor's favor, he likely wondered how long it would last. Once he experienced puberty, his desirability would diminish. (The onset of puberty in the ancient world was much later than is currently the case.) No doubt aware of Hadrian's anxiety about his health and forecasted death, the youth may have felt sacrificing himself was an honorable thing to do �" and one that spared him the humiliation of being cast aside by the jaded emperor.
Publicly, Hadrian's grief was intense, reminiscent of Alexander the Great's for his lover Hephaestion, a comparison the Emperor welcomed, despite the significant differences in the two relationships. (Alexander and Hephaestion were near-contemporaries in age, and had been intimate since boyhood.) As Alexander (356-323 BC) did for Hephaestion, Hadrian built cities and temples honoring the deified Antinous. The cult of Antinous swept much of the Mediterranean world and remained popular for several centuries. Over 400 statues of this idealized image of youthful male beauty are extant. He is portrayed in many guises, including the Egyptian god Osiris and the Greek god Dionysus. For many, Hadrian and Antinous became one of the great historical love stories. Is that accurate?
Probably, although if so, it was a relatively short romance, one driven by Hadrian's intense sexual attraction for Antinous. Hadrian's private feelings about his lover's death aren't known, but if the youth had sacrificed himself, then gratitude may have replaced imperial desire. Sadly, no eyewitness accounts have survived to confirm the details of the relationship. What is known comes from histories penned long after the events described. But those writings are based on earlier, most likely original sources.
Early Christian writers believed they were lovers. Not surprisingly, they condemned the relationship while struggling to acknowledge Hadrian's achievements. Some authors sought to portray them as platonic friends, which required denying compelling evidence to the contrary. This judgmental, puritanical perspective continued into the modern era.
A fine assessment of Hadrian and Antinous' affair is Royston Lambert's meticulously researched, balanced, and highly readable Beloved and God (published by Viking in 1984, but now out of print). Also excellent is Elizabeth Speller's Following Hadrian: A Second Century Journey through the Roman Empire (Oxford University Press, 2003). Spiller's discussion of Antinous' death is especially nuanced and logical. Finally, Marguerite Yourcenar's magnificent novel The Memoirs of Hadrian is a dazzling achievement in historical fiction.